Early Chinese Examinations
People have always judged each other in terms of their skills, potential, character, motives, mood, and expected behavior. Since the beginning of time, these practices has been passed on from generation to generation. Being able to evaluate our friends, family, colleagues, and enemies in terms of these attributes is fundamental to us as human beings. With the introduction of the written word, these opinions and evaluations have been recorded, and our techniques for classifying, analyzing, and improving them has become not just an art but also a technology that has played an increasing role in how societies are governed. To triumph in this field has been the secret of success in war, business, and politics.
The earliest recorded procedures for psychological and educational assessment date back nearly 3,000 years to the early Chinese dynasties in which the Emperors of the day followed standardized procedures for the selection and training of their employees. It is clear that there were already well established rules to ensure that common standards were enforced and that opportunities for cheating were kept to a minimum.
Early Chinese Examinations for the Civil Service
Particular importance was given to the identification of talent, ripe for education, at an early age, and to ensuring that the best candidates for employment were given the roles in which they could excel. These were the keys to effective government even then.
Confuscian psychology
Earlier than 500 BCE, Confucius had argued that people were different from each other. In his words, “their nature might be similar, but behaviors are far apart,” and he differentiated between “the superior and intelligent” and “the inferior and dim” (Lun Yu, Chapter Yang Huo). Mencius (372 BCE to 289 BCE) believed that these differences were measurable. He advised: “assess, to tell light from heavy; evaluate, to know long from short” (Mencius, Chapter Liang Hui Wang). Xun Zi (310 BCE to 238 BCE) built upon this theory and advocated the idea that we should “measure a candidate’s ability to determine his position [in the court]” (Xun Zi, Chapter Jun Dao).
Thus, over 2,000 years ago, much of the fundamental thinking that today underpins psychometric testing was already in place. If examinations are to truly fulfill their purpose (that is, be valid), they must also produce consistent results (be reliable) and be free from bias. There is evidence that talent selection systems appeared in China even before Confucius. In the Xia Dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BCE), the tradition of selecting officers by competition placed heavy emphasis on physical strength and skills, but by the time of the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE), the content of the tests had changed. The emperor not only assessed candidates based on their shooting skills, but also in terms of their courteous conduct and good manners. From then on, the criteria used for the selection of talent grew to include the “Six Skills”: arithmetic, writing, music, archery, horsemanship, and skills in the performance of rituals and ceremonies; the “Six Conducts”: filial piety, friendship, harmony, love, responsibility, and compassion; and the “Six Virtues”: insight, kindness, judgment, courage, loyalty, and concord.
The Imperial Examination
During the Warring States period (475–271 BCE), oral exams became more prominent. In the Qin Dynasty, from 221 BCE, the main test syllabus primarily consisted of the ability to recite historical and legal texts, calligraphy, and the ability to write official letters and reports. The Sui (581–618 CE) and Tang Dynasties (618–907 CE) saw the introduction of the imperial examinations, a nationwide testing system that became the main method of selecting imperial officials. Formal procedures required—then as they do now—that candidates’ names should be concealed, independent assessments by two or more assessors should be made, and that conditions of examination should be standardized. The general framework of assessment set down then—including a “syllabus” of material that should be learned, and rules governing an efficient and fair “examination” of candidates’ knowledge—has not changed for 3,000 years.
Indian Civil Service Examinations
While similar but less sophisticated frameworks may have existed in other ancient civilizations, it was models based on the Chinese system that were to become the template for the modern examination system. The British East India Company, active in Shanghai, introduced the Chinese system to their occupied territories in Bengal in the early 19th century. Once the company was abolished in 1858, the system was adopted by the British for the Indian Civil Service. It subsequently became the template for Civil Service Examinations in England, France, the USA and much of the rest of the world.